英语单词巧妙记忆法-小乐老师推荐
①
creates himself. 人类创造了自身。
changes the world. 人类改变世界。
No can live forever. 没有人能长生不死。
are cleverer than monkeys. 人比猴子聪明。
cannot live without water. 人离开水就无法生存。
All must have water to live. 人必须有水才能生存。
②
is not always stronger than. 男人并不总比女人强。
Generally speaking, live longer than. 一般而言，女性寿命较男性长。
③ 微信联系shengengjingdian分享精彩，同时分享英语冠词经典，英语易混词辨析详解。
A: There is waiting for you. B: Where is? 甲：有一个人在等你。乙：那人在哪里？
and were sitting behind me. They were talking loudly. I turned round. I looked at and angrily. 一个男青年和一个女青年坐在我后面，他们大声说话。我转过脸，愤怒地瞪了那男人和那女人。
④ womanman
Don’t cry — be ! 不要哭，勇敢点！要像个男子汉！
Play! 显示男子气概！ Play! 撒娇！
He is only half ! 他没有男子气。
He is of will. 他是个意志坚强的人。
He is of letters. 他是个学者。
He is of ambition. 他是个野心家。
He is . 他是个婆婆妈妈的人。
He is in tenderness. 他温柔得像个女人。
There was little of in her. 她几乎没有女人味。
She is of letters. 她是个女学者。
of both sexes in the Parliament made a big noise against the bill. 议会里两种性别的女人们都对这个法案大嚷大叫地加以反对。(这是一位英国批评家讽刺议员的话，对那些因循苟且、办事不利的男性议员也称之为woman)
⑤ 表示“丈夫，男朋友”时可用冠词，表示“夫妻”，该短语不用冠词；表示“从小到大，终身，一生”，用作副词，该短语不用冠词
⑥ 和作称呼语时不用冠词；意为“老兄，伙计”，多表示亲切，有时含有轻蔑、戏谑或不耐烦的意味，表示无礼的称呼
⑦ 与定冠词或物主限定词连用，表示“最佳人选”
He is for the job. 做这件事，他是最合适的人选。
⑧ 与零冠词连用，用于enough前，表示抽象意义；与不定冠词连用，用于enough of之后，用作等级名词进行等级比较
Are you enough for this dangerous job? 你有勇气做这项危险的工作吗？
Are you enough of for this dangerous job? 你有勇气做这项危险的工作吗？
⑨ in the street和 on the street
⑩ as 表示“一致地，作为一个男人，作为一个普通人，就其个人品格而言”；as 表示“全体一致地，万众一心，同时地，一起”：
He spoke, not merely as soldier. 他从普通人的观点而不是军人的观点来讲话。
The staff speaks on this issue. 全体职员在这个问题上意见一致。
⑪ if表示“人数足有”；to表示“所有人，无一例外”；to表示“无一例外，直到最后一人”
The enemy is two hundred strong,. 敌军足有200人。
⑫ 或
冠词的使用率很高，
传统语法将冠词分为不定冠词和定冠词两类，现代英语将冠词分为不定冠词、定冠词和零冠词三类。
冠词是一种本身不能独立使用的虚词，一般放在名词前面，帮助说明这个名词的含义。
；有时既可用不定冠词也可用定冠词；有时不用或缺省冠词；大
③
英语冠词用法系列讲座
英语冠词用法系列讲座（一）不定冠词的用法
英语冠词用法系列讲座（二）定冠词的用法
英语冠词用法系列讲座（三）零定冠词的用法
英语冠词用法系列讲座（四）冠词的省略
英语冠词用法系列讲座（五）冠词的后置
英语冠词用法系列讲座（六）泛指
英语冠词用法系列讲座（七）类指
英语冠词用法系列讲座（八）特指
英语冠词用法系列讲座（九）独指
英语冠词用法系列讲座（十）泛指、类指、特指的比较
英语冠词用法系列讲座（十一）不同冠词表示类指的比较
英语冠词用法系列讲座（十二）名词的帽子——冠
英语冠词用法系列讲座（十三）不可数名词戴帽子用冠词吗？
英语冠词用法系列讲座（十四）并列连用的名词怎样用冠词戴帽子？
英语冠词用法系列讲座（十五）男人和女人都戴什么帽子？
英语冠词用法系列讲座（十六，……）陆续发布
英语有很多容易混淆的词语。在英汉词典中有很多汉语释义雷同或相近的英语词汇，在很多情况下，由于语境、搭配、句型结构等不同，它们之间有的存在细微差异，有的存在很大差别；有些词义相同或相近的词汇在某些情况下可换用，但在另一些情况下却不能换用；这在许多同义词、近义词中都有类似情况，很容易误用和错用。在英语词汇中，有些单词相貌非常相似，但词义却不同，很容易张冠李戴。如果不了解同义词、近义词、近形词等易混词语的区别，尤其是这类词之间的细微差异和习惯用法，就掌握不到规范、地道的英语，在交际和写作中常令人匪夷所思，甚至闹出笑话，因此，熟悉和掌握易混词语的区别和用法是非常重要的。
为此，我学习和研究英语易混词20多年，辨析了560组常用的或疑难的易混词，Word排版，大32开，1128页，80万字，150万字符。为了与网友分享，又编辑了手机版。
以易混词语组为主干，列出一组易混词语，说明这组易混词语的共
例句涉及天文地理、自然科学、人文科学，学习英语易混词的同时，增加多方面的知识，有些例句包含人生哲理，催人奋进。
《英语易混词辨析》是我20多年对英语易混词学习和研究的总结。每句话都经过反复考究、反复推敲，有时为考究一句话的正误要花上几天甚至几十天，有的一组词的考证总结就用了几年功夫。
需要文档中任何内容或者全部文档者，微信互动联系，我将分享文档，互学共勉，联系方式在本文档③中，或评论留言。
我决心深耕不辍，打造经典，与万千朋友共勉。非常欢迎广大朋友提供宝贵意见，凡被采纳的独创性见解，我将一一表示感谢！
《英语易混词辨析》目录
1. a, an
2. a[an], one
3. a[an], the
4. abandon, desert, discard, forsake, give up
5. abide, bear, endure, stand, suffer, tolerate, put up with, brook
6. ability, capability, capacity, competence, faculty, genius, talent, power, skill, aptitude
7. able, capable, competent, adequate, qualified
8. abnormal, irregular, unusual, eccentric, unnatural, exceptional, subnormal, aberrant
14. above, beyond, over, more than
15. above, over, on
16. abroad, overseas
17. absolute, complete, entire, perfect, utter, total, thorough, full
18. absorb, digest, assimilate, suck
19. abstract, attract, contract, distract, extract, protract, retract, subtract, tractor
20. abstract, digest, outline, summary, resume, synopsis, gist
21. absurd, ridiculous, preposterous, ludicrous
22. accelerate, quicken, speed
23. accent, dialect, tone, pronunciation, intonation
24. accept, receive
25. accessory, appendix, attachment, supplement, affiliation
26. accompany, company, see, attend, escort, convoy
27. accomplish, achieve, complete, finish, fulfil(l)
28. accomplishment, achievement, exploit, feat, success
29. accord, agree, coincide, conform, correspond, square, tally
30. accord, agreement, convention, treaty, pact, compact, bargain, contract, understanding
31. according to, in accordance with, in accord with
32. accordingly, consequently, hence, therefore, thus, so
33. accumulate, amass, assemble, collect, gather, congregate, hoard
34. accurate, exact, precise
35. accuse, charge, denounce, blame, condemn, scold, rebuke, reproach, censure, chide, reprove, upbraid, impeach
36. achieve, acquire, obtain, gain, get, attain, earn, derive, secure, win, procure
37. achieve, attain, arrive, reach, gain, get, come to
38. acknowledge, admit, concede, confess, own, recognise, recognize, allow, grant
39. acquaintance, friend, intimate, familiar, confidant, confidante
40. act, action, behave, behavio(u)r, conduct, deed, manner, activity, style
41. actor, actress, performer, player, cast
42. actual, authentic, genuine, positive, practical, real, true, virtual
43. acute, keen, sharp
44. acute, urgent, imperative, critical, crucial, pressing, emergency
45. add, increase, gain, augment, multiply, broaden, widen, lengthen, enlarge
46. add, plus
47. additional, extra, supplementary
48. address, deliver, discourse, lecture, speak, talk, speech, declaim, orate
49. address, greet, hail, salute, welcome
50. adhere, glue, stick, cling, cohere
51. adopt, foster
52. adorn, decorate, ornament, embellish, bedeck, garnish
53. adult, grown-up, mature, ripe, mellow
54. advance, forward, further, promote, expedite
55. advance, move on, proceed, progress, march
56. advanced, progressive, radical
57. advantage, benefit, profit, interest
58. adventure, venture, risk, hazard, chance
59. adverse, contrary, opposite, reverse, contradictory, converse, inverse
60. advice, proposal, proposition, recommendation, suggestion
61. advise, counsel, propose, recommend, suggest
62. advise, persuade, convince, counsel, recommend, urge, induce, coax
63. affair, business, concern, matter, thing
64. affect, effect
65. affect, influence, impress, impact, leverage
66. affection, emotion, feeling, passion, sentiment, sentimentality
67. affirm, allege, assert, claim, declare
68. afraid, fearful, dreadful, frightful, awful, awesome, horrible, horrid, horrific, terrible, terrific, frightened, frightening
69. after, behind
70. afterward(s), later
71. age, epoch, era, period, times, day, date
72. aged, elderly, old
73. ago, before
74. agony, anguish, misery, torment, torture, distress, grief, grieve, mourn, sadden, sadness, sorrow
75. agree, approve, consent, grant, subscribe, be for, accede, assent, concur
76. aid, assist, help
77. air, atmosphere, gas
79. alive, live, living
80. all, whole
81. alleviate, ease, lessen, lighten, relieve, abate, allay, assuage, mitigate, soothe, subside
82. allocate, assign, distribute, divide, allot, apportion
83. allow, permit
84. almost, nearly
85. alone, lonely, lone, lonesome, solitary, desolate, forlorn
86. aloud, loud, loudly
87. already, yet
88. also, as well, too, either
89. although, though
93. amount, number
99. animal, beast, creature, brute
100. announce, declare, proclaim, pronounce, publish
101. annoy, bother, disturb, interfere, interrupt, irritate, trouble
102. another, other
103. answer, reply, respond
104. anxiety, care, concern, worry
105. anxious, eager, keen, hungry, thirsty, longing, yearning
110. appear, arise, emerge, loom, pop, come out
111. appear, look, seem
112. appoint, designate, name, nominate
113. appreciate, enjoy
114. appropriate, fit, fitting, proper, suitable
115. area, district, region, section, zone, belt, quarter, part, ward, neighbo(u)rhood, locality
116. argue, dispute, debate, quarrel, row, reason, squabble
117. arise, rise
118. arms, weapon, armament, weaponry
119. army, troops, force, military
125. ask, question, inquire, examine, interrogate, query, demand
126. asleep, sleep, sleeping, sleepy
128. associate, colleague, companion, company, fellow, mate, partner, comrade
129. association, society, club, league, union, alliance, federation, fellowship, community
130. assure, ensure, insure, guarantee
131. at, in, on
132. attach, band, bandage, bind, bunch, bundle, chain, fasten, hitch, rope, secure, strap, tape, tie, wrap
133. attempt, try, endeavo(u)r
134. attend, join, participate, take part in, be[go] in for, enter
135. attract, draw, appeal, charm, tempt, lure, allure, entice
136. audience, spectator, listeners, viewers
137. author, writer
138. avenge, revenge, retaliate
139. avenue, street, road, lane, way, expressway, freeway, motorway, highway, highroad, pavement, sidewalk, pedestrian crossing, zebra crossing, pedestrian crosswalk, alley, drive, driveway, parkway, path, footpath, footway, pathway, trace, track, trail, route, course, line
140. avoid, dodge, escape, flee, run away, miss, duck, elude, evade, shun
141. await, wait
142. award, reward, prize, bonus
143. awkward, clumsy, ungainly
144. baby, child, boy, girl, infant, kid, lad, lass, babe, toddler
145. bachelor, master, doctor
146. bad, ill, evil, wicked
147. baffle, bewilder, confuse, embarrass, puzzle, perplex, confound, disconcert, mystify
151. ban, forbid, prohibit
152. bank, beach, coast, shore, seaside
169. begin, start
170. believe, trust
171. beloved, favo(u)rite, popular
176. better, improve
177. big, large, great
178. bite, gnaw, nibble, chew, peck, lick, devour, swallow
179. bite, gnaw, snap, savage, nibble, peck, sting
180. blank, margin, empty, bare, hollow, vacant, free, void, vacuum
181. blast, blow, burst, explode, dynamite, erupt
182. blemish, flaw, defect, shortcoming, weakness, fault
183. blend, compound, mixture, composite, alloy
187. blush, flush, glow, crimson, redden
191. border, boundary, frontier, barrier, division, limit
192. border, brim, rim, brink, edge, fringe, margin, verge
193. borrow, lend, loan, use
194. both, either, neither
195. bowl, cup, glass, plate, saucer, dish, dishes, spoon, chopsticks, knife, fork
197. brand, make, trademark, label, tag
198. break, burst, chip, crack, crash, crush, fracture, grind, shatter, smash, snap, splinter, split
199. breed, foster, raise, rear, bring up
200. brief, short
201. bring, take, fetch, get
202. broad, wide
203. burden, load
204. business, commerce, trade, bargain, deal, traffic
205. businessman, dealer, merchant, trader, tradesman, retailer, wholesaler
206. button, knob, switch, control, dial, wheel
207. buy, purchase
211. can, could, be able to
212. can, could, may, might
213. can, could, may, might, must
214. cane, staff, stick
220. catch, clutch, grasp, grip, seize, capture, clasp, grab, snatch, arrest, trap
221. cause, reason
222. caution, warn, forewarn, admonish
223. celebrate, congratulate, compliment
224. centre, core, focus, heart, hub, nucleus, middle
225. certain, sure
226. chance, occasion, opportunity, break
230. charter, hire, lease, let, rent, tenant
231. chase, catch, pursue, hunt, be[run, go, get, seek] after
232. check, examine, inspect, test, verify, go over, go through, look over, look through
233. chief, main, major, primary, prime, principal, capital, central, key, leading
234. choice, pick, alternative, option, election, selection, vote, preference
239. clay, earth, ground, mud, soil, land
240. clever, wise, smart, bright, brilliant, gifted, ingenious, intellectual, intelligent, sagacious, shrewd, apt, cute
241. climate, weather
242. climb, crawl, creep, ascend, mount, scale, scramble
243. close, conclude, end, finish, terminate
244. close, shut
245. clothe, dress, wear, put on, have on, be in
246. clothes, clothing, coat, dress, suit
248. cold, bleak, chill, chilly, cool, warm, warmth, heat, hot
249. column, file, queue, rank, row, line, range, procession
250. come, go
251. comfort, console, relieve, solace, soothe, appease, placate, pacify
252. comfort, ease
253. command, direct, instruct, order, bid, dictate
254. common, general, universal, normal, ordinary, usual, average, commonplace
256. compel, constrain, enforce, force, impel, impose, oblige
257. complex, complicated, intricate, involved
258. component, constituent, element, ingredient
259. compose, comprise, consist of, constitute, form, make
260. comprehensible, comprehensive
261. concentrate, focus
262. concept, conception, notion, idea, outlook, opinion, thinking, thought, judgement, view, viewpoint
263. concern, concerned, concerning
264. conduct, direct, guide, lead, navigate, pilot, steer, usher
265. confine, limit, restrict
267. consequence, effect, result, outcome, upshot, finding, fruit
271. contain, include, involve, comprise, cover, embrace
272. content, fulfil(l), gratify, meet, please, satisfy
273. continual, continuous, consecutive, successive, constant, persistent, perpetual straight, ceaseless, incessant, nonstop, uninterrupted
274. continually, continuously
275. continuance, continuation, continuity
276. continue, carry, go on, move on, proceed, resume, persist, endure, hold, keep, last
277. continue, keep, lie, remain, rest, sit, stand, stay, hold, last
278. contribute, dedicate, devote, donate
279. cook, cooker
280. cope, deal, dispose, handle, manage, treat
297. custom, habit, manner, convention, practice, tradition, use, usage, way
298. customary, accustomed, conventional, habitual, traditional, usual, used
299. customer, client, patron, guest, passenger, consumer, buyer, purchaser, shopper
301. damp, dank, humid, moist, muggy, wet
303. dangerous, hazardous, perilous, precarious, risky, unsafe
305. deceive, cheat, trick, defraud, swindle, fool, con, fleece, impose
306. decide, determine, resolve, settle, make up one’s mind
309. deep, deeply
310. deep, profound
311. defend, guard, preserve, protect, safeguard, ensure, secure, shield
312. defer, delay, postpone, prolong, protract, put off, retard, suspend
319. despite, in spite of, notwithstanding, for all, with all
320. destroy, damage, demolish, devastate, raze, ruin, wreck
321. die, death, dead, deadly, deathly, dying
322. die, drown, execute, hang, kill, poison, strangle, starve
324. differ, disagree, disapprove, dissent, divide, object, oppose
325. different, various, diverse, distinct, distinctive
327. difficult, hard
328. digit, figure, number, numeral
329. disability, inability
330. disable, enable, unable
331. disappear, fade, vanish, merge, lift, swallow
333. disease, illness, sickness, complaint, disorder, trouble, ailment, malady, malaise
334. dispatch, hasten, hurry, rush
335. dispel, disperse, dissipate, scatter
336. display, exhibit, expose, show
337. disposition, temper, temperament
338. distant, far, remote
339. divide, divorce, part, insulate, isolate, segregate, separate
340. do, make
342. door, gate, exit, gateway
343. doubt, suspect, question, distrust, mistrust
345. dread, fear, fright, horror, panic, scare, startle, terror, alarm
347. drill, exercise, practice, train
348. drink, have, gulp, lick, sip, slurp, suck, swallow
354. eat, dine, have, take, help yourself
355. economic, economical, economically, economics, economy, financial, financially, finance, fiscal
356. educate, instruct, teach, school, train, coach, tutor
357. effective, effectual, efficacious, efficient
359. elder, eldest; older, oldest
360. electric, electrical, electronic
361. elegant, graceful
362. elongate, extend, lengthen, stretch, prolong, protract
363. else, other
367. encounter, meet
enough, sufficient, adequate, 368. ample, plentiful
369. environment, surroundings, circumstance, conditions
370. especially, particularly, specially
371. esteem, hono(u)r, regard, respect, revere, reverence, adore, worship, admire, homage
372. event, accident, incident, occurrence, casualty, mishap, happening
373. eventual, eventually; final, finale, finally; last, lastly, at last; ultimate, ultimately; at length, in the end
374. everybody, everyone, every one
375. examination, quiz, test, final, oral, makeup
376. example, instance, case, illustration
377. example, model, pattern
382. exist, live, survive
383. expand, swell, dilate, distend, inflate
384. expert, specialist, authority, guru, pundit
385. extend, spread, stretch
386. exterior, external, outer, outside, outward
387. fade, wilt, wither
388. fair, fairly
389. fairly, quite, rather, pretty, very
390. fame, glory, hono(u)r, name, prestige, renown, reputation, repute, stature
391. family, home, house, household
392. farther, further; farthest, furthest
393. fast, quick, rapid, swift, prompt, speedy, express, hasty
394. fee, charge, cost, expense, fare, freight, toll, tip, expenditure
396. fighter, soldier, warrior
397. film, movie, picture, cinema
399. fine, good, nice, well
400. fire, burn, blaze, flame, flare, light, ignite, kindle
401. fit, suit, match
402. fittings, fixture, furniture
403. flesh, meat
404. flower, bloom, blossom
405. fluid, liquid, gas, solid
406. fog, mist, haze, smog
407. follow, trace, track, trail, tail, shadow, stalk
408. foolish, silly, stupid, dull, fatuous
409. force, power, strength, energy, might, vigour
410. forceful, forcible
411. forecast, foresee, foresight, foretell, forewarn, predict, prophecy, prophesy
412. foregoing, former, preceding, previous, prior
413. forest, jungle, bushes, shrubbery, wood(s), grove
414. forget, leave
415. form, shape, figure, outline, profile
417. gift, present
421. grand, magnificent, splendid, superb, glorious, gorgeous, spectacular, imposing, majestic, sublime
422. grow, plant, cultivate, crop, seed, sow
423. happen, occur, chance, break out, take place, befall
424. harbo(u)r, port, seaport, dock, pier, jetty, quay, wharf
425. hard, harsh, rigid, rigorous, severe, stern, strict
426. hardly, scarcely, barely
428. heap, pile, stack, mass, bank
429. hear, listen
430. height, altitude, elevation, stature
431. hide, conceal, bury, cache, cloak, cover, disguise, harbo(u)r, mask, screen, shelter, suppress, veil
432. high, tall, lofty
433. hint, imply, indicate, intimate, suggest, allude, insinuate
435. hope, want, wish
436. hunger, hungry, starve, starvation, famine, famish
437. identify, recognise, recognize, make out, pick out, place, know, spot, tell
438. idle, lazy, indolent
439. ill, sick
440. imaginable, imaginary, imaginative
te, privy
445. information, info, intelligence, message, news, tidings, word
446. insist, persevere, persist, adhere, cling, assert, stay, maintain, hang, hold, keep, stick, endure
447. intend, mean, plan, be going to, be thinking of
448. invaluable, priceless, precious, valuable, valued
449. investigate, enquire, inquire, probe, survey
450. jest, joke, banter, kid, tease, quip
451. job, task, duty, chore, labour, toil, work
452. jump, leap, bound, bounce, hop, skip, spring, clear, gambol, hurdle, vault
454. lack, absent, absence, deficient, deficiency, scarce, scarcity, short, shortage, want, need
455. landscape, outlook, panorama, perspective, prospect, scene, scenery, sight, spectacle, view
461. lay, place, put, set
462. learn, study
463. lie, falsehood, fib, story
464. lift, raise, elevate, hoist, heave
465. list, schedule, timetable, table, form
466. little, small
467. locality, location, place, position, site, situation, spot, scene
468. look, see, watch
469. love, lover, lovely, loving, lovable
470. luck, chance, break, lot, fortune, fate, destiny, doom
474. mark, tick, check, sign, symbol, character, brand
476. medicine, drug, specific, remedy, cure
477. meeting, conference, convention, assembly, rally, congress, council, session, summit, gathering, caucus
478. memoris[z]e, recall, recollect, remember, remind
479. mend, patch, repair, fix
480. method, means, way, manner, approach, process, mode, system, fashion
481. mighty, powerful
482. migrate, migrant, migration; emigrate, emigrant, emigration; immigrate, immigrant, immigration
483. mission, task, assignment
484. mistake, blunder, fault, error, slip, wrong
492. nervous, tense, stressful
494. object, objective, purpose, aim, end, goal, target
495. offer, proffer, provide, supply, afford, accommodate, equip, furnish, tender, volunteer
496. only, sole, single, unique
497. origin, root, source, spring, beginning, birth, cause
498. ought to, should
499. pain, ache
500. pass, past
501. peak, summit, top, climax, zenith
502. percent, per cent, percentage
503. phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
504. picture, painting, drawing, outline, sketch, portrait, landscape, caricature, cartoon
505. plan, design, blueprint, program(me), project
506. poem, poetry, verse, stanza, epic, lyric, doggerel, jingle
507. possible, likely, probable
508. possibly, perhaps, maybe, likely, probably
509. press, compress, depress, express, impress, oppress, repress, suppress
510. price, charge, cost
511. problem, question
512. proportion, rate, ratio, scale
513. quality, quantity, mass, weight
514. quiver, shiver, tremble, thrill, vibrate, shake, shudder, convulse, quake, quaver, tremor
515. rare, scarce, at a premium
516. react, reaction; respond, response
517. refuse, reject, decline, deny, repel, repulse, rebuff
518. relate, relation, relationship, relative, relativity
519. rescue, save, deliver, redeem
520. respectable, respected, respectful
521. respecting, respective
522. responsible, responsive
523. school, university, college, academy, institute
524. seat, sit
525. sensible, sensitive
538. symbol, attribute, badge, token, emblem
539. technical, technological
540. technique, technology
541. thank, appreciate, oblige
542. thin, lean, slender, slight, slim, spare, lanky, gaunt, scrawny, bony, skinny
544. throw, cast, heave, fling, hurl, pitch, toss
545. till, until
546. tired, tiring, tiresome
547. tired, weary, fatigued, exhausted
p, voyage, cruise, excursion, jaunt, junket
551. used to, would; be used to, be accustomed to
552. valuable, invaluable; precious, priceless
553. value, worth
554. variable, varied, various, variance, variant, variation, variety
555. visit, call, drop, see, look, come, stop
556. wake, waken, awake, awaken, arouse, rouse
557. walk, pace, step, stride, stroll, strut, plod
558. war, campaign, battle, combat, conflict, fight, warfare
559. -ward, -wards
560. worth, worthwhile, worthy, deserve, merit
华慧考博英语词汇10000详解之词汇学习方法（5）
关于“制度”的翻译--兼论Economic Institutions 和Economic Systems 的界说以及二者之间的关系
作者：叶行昆
在我国目前学术界使用的“制度”一词，盖源于英译；然而，其对应词应该是“system”还是“institution”，恐怕尚存歧义。如果说一个国家或地区的经济实力的落后是经济制度的落后，那么如何解读社会主义国家的经济实力一般都落后于资本主义国家呢？难道说可以就此推导出社会主义制度没有资本主义制度优越吗？有鉴于此，笔者欲先作番“语言诠释学”(linguistic interpretation)方面的阐述。
美国著名语言学家乔姆斯基(Chomsky)在其划时代的名著《句法结构》（Syntactic Structure）指出，每一词汇都存在“表层结构”(surface structure)和“深层结构”（deep structure）。这一理念对于语言翻译的标准提出了更高的要求。语言翻译既需其具有对称性(word for word translation,or meaning on the surface)，又需其具有蕴涵性（implication, or meaning under surface）。对于语言翻译的要求不仅“信、达、雅”（严复语）而已，而且要进入“化境”（钱钟书语）。按照语言诠释学的一般原理，同一词汇不能同时表示二种或更多的词义；反之，如果有二个词汇表示同一词义，其中一个必须废除；恰似一国不可同时存在两种货币一样。对此，孔子早就有言在先：“必也正名乎！”“名不正，则言不顺。”（《论语•子路》）倘若以此语言诠释学原理来审视在我们经济学领域里的译文现状，便不难发现常有因名词术语翻译不确切而产生歧义，进而造成理论误区的问题。
且看“经济制度”一词的含意。仅以二本英语著作的书名之译名为例：一本是《经济利益与经济制度》（陈郁等译，上海三联书店和上海人民出版社出版，1996），其英语原名是：Economic Interests and Institutions (Daniel W. Bromley，by Basil Blackwell Inc., New York, 1989)；另一本是《比较经济制度》（徐节文等译，中国社会科学出版社，1985），其英语原名是Comparative Economic Systems (Allan G. Gruchy, Houghton Mifflin Company, Second Edition)。由此可见，汉语的“经济制度”一词存在着二个相对的英语词汇，即：Economic Institution和Economic System 。 那么，如果我们说社会主义社会的政治、经济制度要比资本主义社会的政治、经济制度优越，或者说“我国现正处于社会主义性质的初级阶段经济制度”，“我们要推进经济制度的改革并进行制度创新”等等；这儿的“经济制度”是指Economic Institutions 还是指“Economic Systems”呢？此外，我们通常所说的“制度变迁与制度安排”是指 “Institutional Change and Arrangement”还是指Systematical Change and Arrangement”？“一国二制”是“one state with two systems”还是“one state with two institutions”？更有甚者，“制度经济学”和“比较经济制度学”的研究对象均是“制度”，那么它们所谓的“制度”含义是 “Institutions”还是“Systems”？有否两门学科共同视一个对象为各自研究领域的必要性？ 在此，“制度”一词有歧义是显然的。
然而，此项歧义并非在于英语词汇的本身，“Institutional Economics”和“Comparative Economic Systems”它们各自的研究对象是明确无误的，即“Institutions” 和 “Systems”。此项歧义产生于汉语的译文，问题在于能否一并把“Institution”和“System”译成“制度”。就一般而言，将此二者均译成“制度”亦未尝不可。如在《新英汉词典》（上海译文出版社出版，1979）中就在相关词条有此类的译文。在“Institution”词条里，它把“the old institutions of capitalism”译成“各种陈旧的资本主义组织机构及其制度”（P.658）；而在“System”词条里，它把“a social system”和“the communist system”分别译成“社会制度”和“共产主义制度”（P.1412）。在《汉英词典》（A Chinese-English Dictionary）（北京外国语学院英语系，《汉英词典》编写组编，商务印书馆出版，1978）中的“制度”词条亦将此译成“system; institution”（P.904）。但将此二单词与 economic予以组合翻译，组成一个复合名词，就要另当别论了。这涉及到一个词汇的外延与内涵的问题。尤其从经济学研究领域的规范化着眼，应把 “Economic Institutions”和“Economic Systems”分别译成各自相应的汉语译名术语为好；即使确实没有合适的或确切的对应词，我们在取词用义时，至少亦应予以说明，以免令人误解。
我们先分别环顾一下“institution”和“system”二词的各自词源（etymology）: “institution”是“institute”的派生词，而“institute”源起于拉丁字（institutio），其词干(stem)是“stituere –tut=statuere”表示“set up”；该词在中世纪英语（Middle English）中意为“establish, arrange，teach”。在当代英国英语 (British English)中“institution”意为“established law, custom, or practice”（见《简明牛津英语词典》P.520，Oxford at the Clarendon Press, New Edition,1982）然而，将 “institution”一词引入经济学领域的19世纪末20世纪初的美国人，故似应以美国英语（American English）为基准。在《美国传统英语词典》（The American Heritage Dictionary, by Houghton Mifflin Company, Second College Edition, 1982）中，“institution”一词被释义为“An established organization or foundation, esp. one dedicated to public service or to culture”（P.666）。如果说孤证不足为凭的话，再看一条旁证。在《兰敦大学词典》（The Random House College Dictionary, by Random House, Inc., Revised Edition, 1979），它将“institution”一词释义为“an organization or establishment devoted to the promotion of a particular object, esp. one of a public, educational, or charitable character”（P.690）。由此可见，此二本词对该词的释义有共同之处，即“an established organization”与“an organization or establishment”；其汉语语义乃是“一种设定的组织或机构”。
接下来看“system”一词。该词源于上古拉丁语（Late Latin）和古希腊语(Greek)，其本义为“the established political or social order”（《简明牛津英语词典》,P.1085）。《美国传统英语词典》将该词释义为“A social, economic, or political organizational form”(P.1234)。《兰敦大学词典》亦将其释义为“the structure of society, business, politics, etc.”(P.1335)。从后二本词典的释义，可见该词的汉语语义应是指：“社会的、政治的或经济的组织形式或结构”。
笔者还查阅了几本较有代表性的英语同义词词典，如《韦氏大学类义词词典》（Webster’s Collegiate Thesaurus, by G. & C. Merriam Co. 1976），《<读者文摘>同义词反义词词典》（“Reader’s Digest”Family Word Finder- A New Thesaurus of Synonyms and Antonyms in Dictionary Form, by the Reader’s Digest Association, Inc. 1975）和《英语同义词正确使用指南》（Use the Right Word-A Modern Guide to Synonyms, by the Reader’s Digest Association Propriety Limited, 1969）等；均未能发现“institution”与“system”为同义词。显然，把二个词义不完全等同的英语单词翻译成同一个汉语术语，便不仅是误译，而是错译；此举乃是翻译学之大忌也。笔者估计问题在于人们对于汉语中“制度”一词的理解。《现代汉语词典》（中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编，商务印书馆出版，1978）将“制度”一词释义为：1）要求大家共同遵守的办事规程或行动准则：工作制度/财政制度。2）在一定历史条件下形成的政治、经济、文化等方面的体系：社会主义制度/封建宗法制度（P.1478）。显然，在汉语中“制度”一词有二层含义，前者是泛指，而后者为特指。如上所述，在通常使用时，二义互用亦未尝不可，所以《汉英词典》将该词译成 “institution”和 “system”也不乏其理。但是，经济学作为一门科学，我们在用词取义时，似应尽可能地严谨、规范，以免因术语定义不明而产生歧义，臻致在理论研究上造成困惑。况且，“制度”(system)与“组织”(institution)，就一般意义来说，其层面亦不尽相同，制度是社会游戏的规则，是人们创造的、用以约束人们相互之间交流行为的框架；而组织则是由一定目标所组成的，用以解决一定问题的机构或群体。如果说制度是社会游戏的规则，那么，组织便是社会中玩游戏的角色。
有鉴于此，笔者以为，似应暂且将“economic institutions”译成“经济组织”，或者“经济规章”，对此有学者曾云：“这儿所指的‘规章’系与Institution相当。本来Institution之中译多为‘制度’。但因为我们所用‘经济制度’一词系与英文 (Economic System)相当，亦即将System译做制度。故在说明时遇有实系于 Institution相当的辞句里用‘规章’二字以示在辞句中有与System相当而用‘制度’一词有别。这与 Institution与System二字在字源方面是否有别，乃至如何分别无关。因为我们不是故作咬文嚼字，仅是在行文时作避免混淆之权宜之计而已。至于我们作如此分别的理由，大概是把某一单行的Institution用规章，而把一套Institution所组成有关的System用制度”。（孙殿柏：《比较经济制度》，P.4,三民书局印行，1975,）也有学者提出：“新制度经济学(New Institutional Economics)所研究的制度是经济学意义上的制度(institution)，„„ 而不是我们通常所认为的体制(system)，如资本主义体制和社会主义体制。一般地讲，体制多指系统，而制度强调的是关系”。（[美]D•C•诺斯：《经济史中的结构与变迁》，陈郁等译，P.12，上海三联书店 上海人民出版社，1997年版）这又是一说，在此姑且存而不论。事实上，在汉语译文中，人们已习惯于把 Institution与System 混用，如把 Institutional Economics 译成“制度经济学”，又把Economic Institutions 和Economic Systems 都译成“经济制度”（见前面所引的二本书名）。约定俗成起见，我们亦只得存疑而姑且互用；所谓“姑用之以俟后人”（梁启超语），亦此之谓也。况且，“一名之立，踌躇旬日”（严复语），要找一个确切的汉语词汇来对应 Economic Institutions,或者取二个语义明确的汉语术语来分别翻译Economic Institutions”和“Economic Systems”殊为不易。即便在西方经济学家们的著作中，这一问题也依然存在。“它们总喜欢用经济组织这个名词代替经济制度这个名词。‘具有一定经济特点的组织安排，构成它们的经济制度’”。(Allan G. Gruchy: Comparative Economic Systems, Second Edition, by Houghton Mifflin Company,徐节文等译，《比较经济制度》，P.13-14,中国社会科学出版社，1985年版)但是，为了避免概念混淆，我们应该有所说明的是；即汉语的“经济制度”一词相对于英语的“Economic Institutions”与“Economic Systems”而言，有二层含义，前者为泛指，而后者为特指。
所谓“经济制度”（Economic Systems），就是国家组织经济活动的各种制度的总和，其目的便是配置资源，以实现国家的经济目标。一种经济制度就是在一个既定的地理区域（社会）内，有关制定和实施生产、收入与消费决策的一套机制（mechanism）和组织机构（institutions）；它是社会制度中许多次级制度之一，与其他次级制度有相互依存、配合和影响的关系。广而言之，各种机制、组织机构和行为准则（behavioral regulations），凡有助于作出和实施关于稀缺资源配置决策的，都包括在经济制度内。如普赖尔所说：它“包括直接或间接影响经济行为和经济结果的所有机构、组织、法律与准则、惯例、信念、观点、价值标准、禁忌以及由此引起的行为方式”。（转引自Paul R. Gregory /Robert C. Stuart: Comparative Economic Systems, by Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980）简而言之，经济组织机构 (Economic Institutions)等是经济制度（Economic Systems）的有机组成部分。
（注：本文为作者撰写的博士论文中的一个章节，现略作修改。如有侵权，请联系删除）
英语冠词用法系列讲座(十四）并列连用的名词怎样用冠词戴帽子？
华慧考博英语词汇10000详解之词汇学习方法（5）
各位考生，2021年全国各大院校博士招生工作已陆续开启。华慧考博将为大学提供2021年各大院校博、考博招生专业目录、考博参考书目，博士招生考试大纲等招生信息与考博资料。如对考博备考有任何疑问，华慧考博还为广大考生提供了中国药科大学历年考博真题、部分考博院校专业课真题以及其他考博备考资料。如有需要，请大家关注华慧考博频道或者咨询华慧考博
华慧考博
四、语境情景记忆法英语作为一门语言，是一种工具，在人际交往中发挥着重要的交际功能。它可以起到传递信息、表达情感、记忆储存信息、宣传启示等作用。文章是由句子构成的，句子又是由单词和词组构成的。作为构成语言的基本结构单位，单词本身并不能表达完整的信息。只有将单词置于相关语境或情景中，单词才会显现出它的生命力，它的意义和用法也才能更容易地为我们所记忆。基于这一点，对于英语学习者来说，运用语境情景记忆法帮助记忆就显得尤为重要。具体语境情景的创设主要有：语句情境；篇章情境；交流情境；联想情境。（一）语句情境所谓语句情境就是将单词放到语句之中去理解记忆。在语句所创设的情景中记忆单词可以帮助我们更好的理解单词的意义，准确把握单词的用法，并能延长记忆保持的时间。语境情境的创设可以通过这样几个渠道：1．查阅英英或英汉双解词典 找到单词英文释义，培养英语思维语境下的单词词义；找到单词例句，理解并反复记忆。比如：在学习congenital一词时从字典查到中英文释义：A．a congenital medical condition or disease has affected someone since they were born(病症等)天生的：e.g. congenital abnormalities先天畸形B．existing as a part of your character and unlikely to change天生的，根深蒂固的e.g．a congenital liar生性好说谎的人2．从真题或模拟试题中积累单词以及好的语句，历年考博真题和模拟试题或是编写科学的专项训练习题册中均含有要求的词汇。有计划地整理归纳这些单词以及单词所在的句子，理解并记忆句意和词义，同样可以帮助系统记忆单词。
华慧考博
以北大2011年考博真题为例：28. One-room schools, with all subjects being taught to all grades at the same time, simply when better transportation permits specialized spaces and specialized teaching.A. resolved B. absolved C. dissolved D. assolved这是一道词义辨析题。题干句子译文为“学校只有一间房，所有课程同时教给不同年级的学生，一旦交通条件改善，能够供应特殊场地和教学，这一切便迎刃而解。”四个选项的意思分别是resolve“解决”；absolve“赦免某人的罪”；dissolve“溶解”；D项无此词。根据题意，该题应该选择A项。将所选试题的单词语句逐一分析，并将本句英文表达和四个选项释义加以记忆，则词汇量可有较大提升。3．从报刊杂志中积累单词平时定期阅读相关报刊杂志，一方面可以巩固所学词汇，检验对于知识点已经掌握的程度；同时还可以补充新词汇和好的表达方式。在阅读素材提供的句子语境中既能了解人文、自然、法律、金融、医学、科学技术等方面的最新资讯，又能扩大词汇，增强英语综合技能。例句：An official at the disease centers said the increase in national cases was mostly from greater surveillance at the state level and positive identifications of salmonella samples in recent tests．摘自New York Times中题为Abuses Are Found in Online Sales of Medication的文章。从这一句中可以学到case(病例)这一单词的用法，也可以学到surveillance(监视，监督)，positive(肯定的)，identification(辨认，鉴定，证明)，以及sample(样品，样本)等四个单词。将五个重点单词融合到一句话中，结合明确的语境可以更为快速、准确的记忆单词。(二)篇章情境1．阅读理解、作文或听力等试题材料历年真题或模拟试题中的题目材料，如阅读理解和写作范文中随处都有可用来积累的单词和常用表达，因此将练习题当作精读材料重点记忆单词也是很有必要的。
华慧考博
例如：武汉大学2011年考博英语真题阅读理解Passage2中两段。Passage TwoAwarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1918, German physicist Max Planck is best remembered as the originator of the quantum theory. His work helped usher in a new era in theoretical physics and revolutionized the scientific community’s understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. Planck introduced an idea that led to the quantum theory, which became the foundation of twentieth century physics. In December 1900, Planck worked out an equation that described the distribution of radiation accurately over the range of low to high frequencies. He had developed a theory which depended on a model of matter that seemed very strange at the time. The model required the emission of electromagnetic radiation in small chunks or particles. These particles were later called quantums. The energy associated with each quantum is measured by multiplying the frequency of the radiation, v, by a universal constant, h. Thus, energy, or E, equals hv. The constant, h, is known as Planck’s constant. It is now recognized as one of the fundamental constants of the world.Planck announced his findings in 1900, but it was years before the full consequences of his revolutionary quantum theory were recognized. Throughout his life, Planck made significant contributions to optics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, physical chemistry, among other fields. In 1930 he was elected president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, which was renamed the Max Planck Society after World War II. Though deeply opposed to the fascist regime of Adolf Hitler, Planck remained in Germany throughout the war. He died in Gottingen on October 4, 1947.文章讲解了1918年获得诺贝尔物理学奖的德国物理学家马克思普朗克，被誉为量子力学的创始人。他的理论将物理学引入到一个新的时代，这同样也是科学界对于原子和亚原子认知的一次革命性成果。 普朗克引入的观点使量子力学成为二十世纪物理学的基础。1900年12月，普朗克提出了一个公式。该公式准确地描述了辐射从低频到高频的分布范围。 普朗克于1900年宣布他的此项研究成果，但历经数年之后他的这项革命性的量子理论才为世人认可。贯穿其一生，普朗克为光学、热力学、统计力学、物理化学以及其他诸多领域，都做出了重大贡献。认真分析这篇文章的每一句话，借助形音义三位一体法可以高效掌握文中重点单词：originator n. 创始人，发起人； atomic a. 原子的；foundation n 根基，基础；radiation n. 辐射，放射线；emission n. 散发，发行，排放； award vt. 授予；quantum n. 量子；usher vt. 引领；accurately adv. 精确地；regime n. 政府，政权；thermodynamics n. 热力学。值得注意的是，在选用真题或模拟题积累单词时，务必要持之以恒地坚持学习，戒除浮躁心理。在选作模拟题时，要选用高质量的，与真题难度相当的模拟题，切忌漫无目的的瞎抓乱抓试题。试题质量的重要性远远大于试题的数量。2．报刊杂志各类文章以阅读为载体记忆单词可以突破单纯记忆单词的弊端，加深对单词的印象，达到记忆的最佳效果。因此应该充分利用来源于报刊杂志的阅读材料所提供的语篇情境来积累单词。
华慧考博
例如，Newsweek的Health专栏中有一篇题为Kids and Cholesterol的文章，其中第一部分引文部分如下：In the past few years there's been a steady push to get kids with very high cholesterol on stations，the LDL—lowering drugs already found in the medicine cabinets of13 millions Americans．Now the Americans Academy of Pediatrics——the nation's most influential group of pediatricians has gotten in on the act．On Monday，it released new guidelines suggesting that docs should start testing overweight kids or those with a family history of heart disease for high cholesterol at age 2——and that they should consider prescribing statins as early as age 8．Four of the drugs are already FDA-approved for use in kids．The new AAP recommendations are sure to be controversial，especially since the drugs' long-term effects on kids are unknown．在这段文字中，可积累到的博士入学英语单词有：◇cholesterol n．胆固醇◇cabinet n．内阁，柜橱◇academy n．学会，学院，研究院◇pediatrics n．儿科◇pediatrician n．儿科医生◇influential a．有影响力的◇release v．释放，发表◇guideline n．方针◇prescribe v．规定，开药◇recommendation n．推荐，劝告，建议◇controversial adj．争论的，争议的可以积累到的短语或固定用法有：◇in the past few years／over the past(recent)few decades／recently/currently 近年来◇a steady push to do 推动，倡导◇be in on the act 参与，参加行动◇those with family history of heart disease 有心脏病家庭病史的人◇long-term effects on sb 对某人的长期影响可积累到的表达句式有：◇In the past few years there's been a…◇It released new guidelines suggesting that docs should do…◇The new AAP recommendations are sure to be controversial．
华慧考博
(三)交流情境除了语句情境和篇章情境之外，还有交流情境。交流情境主要体现在日常交际和书面表达两个方面。1．日常交际。学习过程分为输入和输出两个过程。记忆单词的过程属于信息和知识输入的过程，而要想将所学真正吸收，并转化为自己的知识和真正的能力，还需要练习输出的过程。这就要求考生在学习过后，对所学及时复习和巩固。掌握一个单词后，尝试创设语言环境，用这个单词进行造句，自编对话，与他人对话或进行汉译英以及英译汉的转换练习等。2．书面表达。在平时英文书信写作，英语日记书写，或试题写作训练中有意识地使用新学词汇和表达方式，以便达到学练结合，逐步巩固的目的。(四)联想情境运用联想将同类、近似或相反的单词联系起来重新分组，构建新的词汇体系，可以加强单词立体化记忆，加深横向与纵向联系，对于单词在不同语境中的灵活运用有极大帮助。1．接近联想。时间或空间上接近的词加以类比而产生的联想。表示浴室的词有：
华慧考博
2．相似联想。将形近、义近词加以类比区分记忆。例如：将下列两组形近单词加以归纳总结，并强化记忆：compress，comprise，concede，conceive，concise；human，humanity，humankind，humble，humid，humiliate，humorous，humoral；legitimate的同义词归纳：lawful，legal，valid，authorized，permitted。由offspring可以想到descendant；由destructive想到devastating和disastrous。3．对比联想。将意义相反的词加以类比加深印象。例如：ambiguous的反义词为：clear，definite，explicit，distinct；alternate的反义词为：consecutive，successive，sequent；play up 和play down互为反义短语，分别表示“夸张；宣扬”和“贬低；缩小”；pull down和pull up为反义短语，分别表示“拆毁；把身体弄垮”和“减速停车；拔起；阻止”。4．创造性联想 英语中大部分单词可以借助构词法来拆分记忆，但是也有些单词由于本身的特殊性，其词义并不完全对应词根意义与词缀意义的组合意义，因此无法根据词根的意义直接推断单词的词义。另外有些单词较难记忆，用传统常规记忆方法效果不大，出现所谓的记忆死角。再者，某些单词非常适合充分发挥想象力、随心所欲、不拘一格地记忆。在这些情况下都可以尝试借助创造性联想法来记忆单词。创造性联想包括：常识或生活经历联想，谐音或形象联想，歌曲或故事联想等。
